‘Putting Africa First: The Making of African Innovation Systems’

Putting Africa First: The Making of African Innovation Systems (2003)
Authors: Mammo Muchie, Peter Gammeltoft, Bengt-Åke Lundvall

Putting Africa first: the making of African innovation systems was published at a time when African governments came together to form a Partnership for Africa’s Development, NEPAD, committing to bringing about an African Renaissance. The debate in the literature at the time was on whether following advanced countries in developing science, technology and innovation would be appropriate for Africa considering the lack of infrastructure - including basic infrastructure - weak institutions and weak linkages between actors.

The book puts forward the premise that a systems of innovation approach that is based on indigenous knowledge and capabilities may in fact be the most appropriate approach for achieving sustainable development in Africa as it places emphasis on learning and competence building. It thus provides the tools for the structural transformation necessary for economic and social development in the region. The premise is that the approach should be context sensitive, taking into account local and regional specificities.

The book includes 21 chapters and draws on empirical research in Africa, Europe and Asia. As reviews of the book indicate, it has its shortfalls, particularly in not completely following through with its argument and missing elements key to development (Carmody 2006; Kankuzi 2005). The book has however been influential in that it was the first of its kind to assert the usefulness of the systems of innovation approach for analyzing development in Africa, and in bringing the focus to learning and competency building at the national and regional levels (Lundvall, Muchie and Gammeltoft 2003).

Timeline entry contributed by Il-haam Petersen

Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. ‘The major feature of the Kyoto Protocol is that it sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. These amount to an average of five per cent against 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008-2012.’

‘The major distinction between the Protocol and the Convention is that while the Convention encouraged industrialised countries to stabilize GHG emissions, the Protocol commits them to do so.’

‘Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity, the Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities.”’

‘The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. The detailed rules for the implementation of the Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh in 2001, and are called the “Marrakesh Accords”.’

Countries are required to implement national measures to meet targets, but the Protocol also suggests three additional market-based mechanisms for doing so, including: emissions trading, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and through Joint implementation (JI). The aim is for these three mechanisms to foster “green investment”.

Also part of the Protocol is a focus on adaptation to the effects of climate change. An Adaptation Fund was established to finance adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.

Activities for the tansfer and access to environmentally sound technology and know-how were considered essential under the UNFCC and the Kyoto Protocol, especially for developing countries to meet emissions targets. Subsequently under the Marrakesh Accords, technology transfer activities have been grouped in a framework following five main themes, which are: technology needs & needs assessments; technology information; enabling environments; capacity building; and mechanisms for technology transfer.

Timeline entry contributed by: Go Maruichi

Source: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change website (UNFCC)

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a scientific intergovernmental body tasked with reviewing and assessing the most recent scientific, technical and socio-economic information produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of climate change. It provides the world with a clear scientific view on the current state of climate change and its potential environmental and socio-economic consequences, notably the risk of climate change caused by human activity.

The panel was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), two organizations of the United Nations. This was the first intergovernmental panel to investigate the shared international challenge of global climate change, representing a particular model for science policy decision-making.

Among other types of reports, the IPCC has provided periodic Assessment Reports of the state of knowledge on climate change, in 1990, 1995, 2001 and 2007. As of January 2011, the Fifth Assessment Report is in preparation.

In 2007, the IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

Timeline entry contributed by Theodosis Kalogeropoulos

The First Image of Earth from Space

“Earthrise, December 1968 – the first picture of our world taken from space was published 40 years ago this week and still retains its haunting power” (headline from an article in the Independent newspaper from 10th January 2010).

From my own experience, a significant event in the history of science and technology is the first image of the Earth from space. The photograph was captured on Christmas Eve 1968 during the Apollo 8 mission, and was published over 40 years ago in January 1969. That a team of astronauts could travel to space is a great feat and of huge significance for science and technology. The creativity and intelligence of the human mind astounds, and surely has much to offer to sustainability and development.

However, the significance of the image is also symbolic. This image inspired the environmental movement as the social movement as we know it today. This image brought an awareness of a global environment. Seen as the ‘blue marble’ suspended in space, the potential fragility and finiteness of the Earth became apparent. Focus widened to an awareness of more global or transnational threats, and a dialogue between the green movement, which became institutionalised in environmental NGOs, and the private sector and governments was established worldwide.

The significance of the environmental movement today can be seen in its “impact on cultural values and society’s institutions”, in its “distinctive place in the landscape of human adventure”, and how it is “at the root of a dramatic reversal in the ways in which we think about the relationship between economy, society, and nature, thus inducing a new culture” (Castells, 1997). The importance of this ‘new culture’ for sustainability and development is that it links the public with ideas and progress in innovation and technology.

The pursuit of science and technology does not take place in a vacuum, it is given legitimacy by civil society. The environmental movement served as a two-way bridge between the research, design and development in innovation and sustainability and their intended sites for use and implementation, the public sphere. This is a two-way communication whereby civil society informs innovation and sustainability and vice versa, a symbiotic relationship driving science and technology forward on a greener path.

Source: Castells, M. (1997) The Power of Identity. Oxford: Blackwell Publications.

Entry submitted by Orla Martin

Association of African Women for Research and Development

The Association of African Women for Research and Development (AAWORD -Senegal) highlights the importance of women’s participation in politics and development.

There has been no space in Africa which has really encompassed women in politics, development and decision making. Women have been excluded in decision making process in many patriarchal societies. There is a need for creating awareness that women can (!), yes they can, and we should campaign for their inclusion in decision making processes and increased representation in Parliament.

Entry submitted by Perpetua Ng’ang’a

Livestock’s Long Shadow (FAO)

Livestock’s Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options is published by the UN FAO (Rome, 2006). Scientists from around the globe acknowledge that the link between development/economic growth and increased meat intake will likely be problematic. The livestock industry is largely unsustainable.

Source: FAO (UN)

Entry submitted by David Havelick